What is imposter syndrome?
What is imposter syndrome?
This summary answers from three perspectives. The primary research of my own masters research, ‘Coaching Imposter Syndrome: The Coach’s Perspective’, unpublished yet relevant, the secondary research behind my masters, the peer reviewed studies considered academically scientifically qualified – they have clout. My own views, if I offer my own personal perceptions, I clearly stated as my own – this you can take or leave.
In 1978 Drs Clance and Imes, coined the term imposter phenomenon, also known as perceived fraudulence [1] to describe a maladaptive psychological and personality construct in high achieving individuals, stemming from childhood experiences. The original research by Clance & Imes (1978), was carried out amongst successful females in academia and so it was believed to be a characteristic of high achieving women[2]. Subsequent studies have suggested gender differences play a part [3] and some suggest they do not [4] and whilst this is still debateable there are many studies to suggest imposter syndrome can affect all genders, groups, creeds, nationalities, industry sectors and ages [5], although the differences amongst these groups do correlate with differences in experience of imposter syndrome [6].
Imposter syndrome is an internalised experience derived from the belief that sufferers are not intelligent [2] or others are more intelligent [7]. Individuals believe they’ve been lucky, fooled others into to thinking they are intelligent, charmed their way through or there has been an error of judgement in their hiring or recruitment, despite swathes of evidence to the contrary [2, 8]. Over time Clance & Imes (1978), found these feelings developed into fears, even paranoia that one would be found out to be a phony. In a recent concept analysis Gomez et, al. (2021), updated imposter syndrome as, “(a) feelings of intellectual fraudulence or self-doubt, (b) fear of being exposed as a fraud, (c) attributing success to external factors such as luck, charm and errors” [9]. It is the inability to internalise success and the intensity of fear of being found out that differentiates imposter syndrome [10]. Clance & Imes (1978) research paradigm viewed imposter syndrome as a personality trait, an enduring, underlying default setting, and this is the lens through which most research has been carried out. More recently this being challenged suggesting it’s also be a state, an episodic response to certain situations and events [11]. Further to this, is the view that imposter syndrome is a spectrum of prevalence and intensity of imposter feelings that most people will step onto at some point, with syndrome at the far end. Gravois (2007) suggests 70% of individuals will experience and episode of imposter feelings compared to a very small percentage that experience imposter syndrome [In 12]. My own findings concur with this.
That’s the definition, background, and conceptualisation of imposter syndrome. The finding from my master’s research stressed the importance of keeping this in mind when considering the many ways it can manifest cognitively, behaviourally, and emotionally as there is a danger that characteristics can be assessed out of the context of the definition and labelled imposter syndrome, when that may not be the case. This as one can imagine may be problematic. The concept of labelling posed a significant ethical and practical issue for the coaches in my study.
Let’s take the name, originating as imposter phenomenon coined by the pioneers of all things imposter, Clance & Imes (1978), this also became known as imposter syndrome as subsequent research gave consideration to the potential pathological nature of the some symptoms particularly psychological distress such as anxiety and depression and the detrimental impact on well-being [13, 14]. In the last ten years this thinking has evolved and it’s now thought these concerns are non/sub-clinical [15, 16], so, phenomenon is emerging again as the more suitable term [17], even though some researchers suggest it should be clinically classified as a syndrome to drive more robust research into intervention strategies [15]. So what? What’s important in this discussion is that researchers consider terminology very important, it shapes context, it provides both powerful explicit and implicit meaning to the researcher, and according to my research the practicing coach and the client too. My coaches were strongly against the application of labels within their coaching practice for so many reasons, particularly in service of clients sharing imposter feelings and the coaches’ individualised intervention and support strategies. Labelling can become a self-fulfilling prophesy for the client and can significantly narrow the coach’s field of vision; for both client and coach, labels become hard to see past and can become very unhelpful.
Imposter syndrome manifests in many ways. Some manifestations shown in studies are persistent worry, over-working, overplanning [16], maladaptive perfectionism, withholding [15], self-handicapping behaviours[18], stress, anxiety, depression, burnout [19], high continuance commitment[15] , avoidance [12], and externalisation of success [2], to name only a few. These sit in front of daunting fears, fear of failure, success, exposure, humiliation, and rejection. These are driven by many underlying powerful beliefs including not being good enough, smart enough or worthy enough; these are highly individualised and contextual fears and beliefs [20]. Imposter syndrome is correlated with mindset theories, self theories and identity theories to mention only a few. All of this can and often does steer strategic behaviour patterns that attempt to prevent fears from becoming a reality [2]. There are some ritualistic and almost superstitious elements to these fears, beliefs and behavioural manifestations; if one does not continually feel, think and behave in this way the ultimate fear of being exposed as an imposter will become a reality [8].
The finding of my study alongside many others suggest context is important. Perfectionism and worry don’t necessarily mean you have imposter feelings, let alone syndrome. Lack of work-life-balance may be concerning but over-working doesn’t necessarily point to imposter syndrome. Imposter feelings or syndrome is also not simply self-doubt and lack of self-confidence. Having a fear of failing, which many can relate to, also can’t be assumed to be on the imposter spectrum. Feeling overwhelmed, anxious, and depressed does not necessarily mean you have imposter syndrome. Occasionally, feeling like you don’t know what you’re doing and a bit of a fraud, may mean you experience imposter feelings, it doesn’t necessarily mean you have imposter syndrome [21]. All of these ‘things’ can be stand-alone thoughts, feelings, and constructs or part of imposter syndrome. The point is, whilst imposter syndrome appears to be a combination of many different constructs [5], it is a construct in its own right [22, 23]. As the researcher I’m aiming to convey that imposter syndrome as per the researched and accepted definitions above [2, 9, 24] is more likely to be a trait, deeply complex, highly individual, somewhat debilitating, and rare. Imposter thoughts and feelings however are much more common, can be fleeting, intermittent or continuous, can be a trait or state yet still highly individual. My findings suggest, reassuringly, they are quite normal and very contextual, they often show up in coaching sessions and really benefit from individual one-to-one tailored coaching, the coaching process, relationship, and overall coaching experience.
The primary research of my masters study considered a small group of coaches that shared great concern for the use of clinical forensic terminology in a non-clinical setting such as the coaching room or the workplace; I have some (I think important) detail on this, if you are interested. It raised inquiries that questioned the validity of any diagnosis or label within the integrity of the coaching space, particularly if one agrees with Western’s (2012) description of coaching as a non-judgemental, safe, diagnosis free space where the anguished-self can co-exist with successful-self, revealing anxieties and fears in the face of desires and ambitions; a place to reflect, become self-aware, self-engaged and gather a positive more fulfilling forward momentum [25]. My findings showed labelling assumes a sense of permanence, attaching the word syndrome suggests something unnecessarily pathological which can ironically become the very thing that gets in the way of desired change and become a self-fulfilling prophesy. In some cases, it’s warranted, but imposter syndrome according to my research findings is rarer than one might imagine despite the fact it’s become common parlance and a catchall buzzword. Imposter syndrome is more challenging to support from a coaching perspective and requires underlying knowledge of the subject, skill and experience; it may also require more in-depth support.
Should we as coaches or organisational leaders be propagating the term imposter syndrome in our coaching spaces and workplaces? My findings question the soundness of this. I have come across many researched and un-researched clinical and non-clinical imposter syndrome diagnostic tools basically asking and answering, ‘How do you know you have imposter syndrome?’ From the “Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale” which is widely used and held under scrutiny in many of the peer reviewed studies I mention, to coaching websites that ask, “Do you procrastinate? Do you over-work to prove your worth? Do you compare yourself? If so, you have imposter syndrome, and here is the solution”. My research participants, who are academically qualified and very experienced coaches questioned the validity of any of these tools in their coaching space. I as the researcher raise the question, is labelling and measuring pseudo-diagnosis and therefore coaching becomes the prescription? Is this the purpose and space coaching holds? Is there even a solution to the lesser sighted imposter syndrome? There are studies questioning associated diagnostic tools as they don’t cover sufficiently the systemic nature of imposter syndrome, that is the two-way impact one’s environment has on both trait and state imposter feelings particularly the situational nature of episodes of imposter feelings [11]. Viewing it as a syndrome drops it squarely on the individual’s doorstep, which is inaccurate and unhelpful [11, 26] as it’s so often a systemic issue too.
My masters findings suggests imposter feelings and syndrome are very different, always uniquely connected to the individual and agrees that the degree of the inability to internalise success and the intensity of fear of being found out differentiates imposter syndrome from imposter feelings and other constructs [10]. Interestingly, an online editorial article in 2016 quotes Clance as saying, “If I could do it all over again, I would call it the imposter experience, because it’s not a syndrome or a complex of a mental illness, it’s something almost everyone experiences” [27]. In short, language matters, words matter, labels matter and meaning matters, particularly in the coaching space.
My research and final dissertation achieved 86% and contributed to my final award of Master of Arts with Distinction in Coaching. It also contributed a little something to coaching research and the coaching industry. I appreciate it may leave you, I hope, thinking, “Tell me more” or asking, “So what? What can I do?”. What does it mean for me as a coach? What does it mean as an employer and organisation? What does it mean for me as someone who has imposter feelings or imposter syndrome?
If you’d like to chat more or have some questions, I’d be delighted to hear from you.
If you’d like to chat about how coaching with me might help you, please give me a call or drop me a note to arrange a time to chat.
If you’d like to discuss a working collaboration or the creation of a workshop / masterclass steeped in peer reviewed research, specifically for your audience, please get in touch.
I trust that anything you take from this, you’ll reference back to its source, either me [A] or a few of the many studies from authors I mention as detailed below.
A. Caleary, G. Coaching Imposter Syndrome: The Coach’s Perspective. What is imposter syndrome. Unpublished manuscript, Newcastle Business School, Northumbria University 2022, taken from https://gillcalearycoaching.co.uk/
1. Kolligian, J. and R.J. Sternberg Perceived fraudulence in young adults: Is there an ‘Imposter Syndrome'? Journal of personality assessment, 1991. 56, 308-326 DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa5602_10.
2. Clance, P.R. and S.A. Imes The imposter phenomenon in high achieving women: Dynamics and therapeutic intervention - University of Northumbria. Psychotherapy: Theory, Research & Practice, 1978. 15 (3), 241-247 DOI: DOI: 10.1037/h0086006.
3. Badawy, R.L., et al. Are all impostors created equal? Exploring gender differences in the impostor phenomenon-performance link. Personality and individual differences, 2018. 131, 156-163 DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2018.04.044.
4. Ferrari, J.R. IMPOSTOR TENDENCIES AND ACADEMIC DISHONESTY: DO THEY CHEAT THEIR WAY TO SUCCESS? Social behavior and personality, 2005. 33, 11-18 DOI: 10.2224/sbp.2005.33.1.11.
5. Bravata, D., et al. Prevalence, predictors, and treatment of impostor syndrome: a systematic review. Journal of general internal medicine, 2019. 35 (4), 1252-1275 DOI: 10.1007/s11606-019-05364-1.
6. Peteet, B.J., L. Montgomery, and J.C. Weekes Predictors of Imposter Phenomenon among Talented Ethnic Minority Undergraduate Students. The Journal of Negro education, 2015. 84, 175-186 DOI: 10.7709/jnegroeducation.84.2.0175.
7. Kets de Vries, M.F.R. The dangers of feeling like a fake. Harvard Business Review, 2005. 83 (9), 108-159.
8. Harvey, J.C. and C. Katz, If I'm So Successful Why Do I feel Like a Fake. 1985: St Martins Press.
9. Gómez-Morales, A. Impostor Phenomenon: A concept analysis. Nursing science quarterly, 2021. 34, 309-315 DOI: 10.1177/08943184211010462.
10. Gullifor, D.P., Imposter phenomenon (IP): An experimental examination of state IP. 2019.
11. McElwee, R.O. and T.J. Yurak The phenomenology of the impostor phenomenon. Individual Differences Research, 2010. 8, 184-197.
12. Neureiter, M. and E. Traut-Mattausch Inspecting the dangers of feeling like a fake: An empirical investigation of the Impostor Phenomenon in the world of work. Frontiers in Psychology, 2016b. 7, 1445-1445 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.01445.
13. Chrisman, S.M., et al., Validation of the Clance Imposter Phenomenon Scale. Journal of personality assessment, 1995. 65(3): p. 456-467 DOI: 10.1207/s15327752jpa6503_6.
14. Bernard, D.L., et al., Impostor Phenomenon and Mental Health: The Influence of Racial Discrimination and Gender. Journal of counseling psychology, 2017. 64(2): p. 155-166 DOI: 10.1037/cou0000197.
15. Vergauwe, J., et al. Fear of being exposed: The trait-relatedness of the Impostor Phenomenon and its relevance in the work context. Journal of business and psychology, 2015. 30 (3), 565-581 DOI: 10.1007/s10869-014-9382-5.
16. Neureiter, M. and E. Traut-Mattausch An inner barrier to career development: preconditions of the Impostor Phenomenon and consequences for career Development. Frontiers in psychology, 2016a. 7, 48-48 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00048.
17. Zanchetta, M., et al. Overcoming the fear that haunts your success – the effectiveness of interventions for reducing the impostor phenomenon. Frontiers in psychology,, 2020. 11, 405-405 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2020.00405.
18. Ross, S.R., et al. The imposter phenomenon, achievement dispositions, and the five factor model. Personality and Individual Differences, 2001. 3, 1347-1355 DOI: 10.1016/s0191-8869(00)00228-2.
19. Hutchins, H.M., L.M. Penney, and L.W. Sublett What imposters risk at work: Exploring imposter phenomenon, stress coping, and job outcomes. Human Resource Quarterly, 2018. 29, 21-48 DOI: https://doi.org/10.1002/hrdq.21304.
20. Clance, P.R., The Imposter Phenomenon: overcoming the fear that haunts your success. 1985, Atlanta, USA.: Peachtree Pub Ltd.
21. DeCandia Vitoria, A., Experiential supervision: healing imposter phenomenon from the inside out. The Clinical Supervisor, 2021. 40(2): p. 200-217 DOI: 10.1080/07325223.2020.1830215.
22. Leonhardt, M., M.N. Bechtoldt, and S. Rohrmann All impostors aren't alike-Differentiating the impostor phenomenon. Frontiers in Psychology,, 2017. 8, DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2017.01505.
23. Rohrmann, S., M. Bechtoldt, and M. Leonhardt Validation of the Impostor Phenomenon among Managers. Frontiers in psychology, 2016. 7, 821-821 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00821.
24. Harvey, J.C. The imposter phenomenon and achievement: A failure to internalize success (Doctoral Dissertation, Temple University, 1981). Dissertation Abstracts International, 1982. 42, 4969B-4970B.
25. Western, S., Coaching and mentoring: A critical text. 2012: Sage.
26. Slank, S. Rethinking the Imposter Phenomenon. Ethical Theory and Moral Practice, 2019. 22, 205-218 DOI: 10.1007/s10677-019-09984-8.
27. Anderson, L.V. Feeling Like an Impostor Is Not a Syndrome: It’s a totally normal part of experiencing success. 12th April 2016 [cited 2022 3rd August 2022]; Available from: https://slate.com/business/2016/04/is-impostor-syndrome-real-and-does-it-affect-women-more-than-men.html.